Which mechanism primarily provides non-repudiation for an email message by confirming both the sender's identity and the message's integrity?
Checksum generated from the message's contents
Adding a time stamp to the email header
Digital signature
Encrypting the email with a shared symmetric key
Non-repudiation demands proof that a specific sender created an unchanged message. A digital signature accomplishes this by combining the sender's private key with a hash of the email; successful verification with the corresponding public key shows the content is intact and that only the sender could have produced the signature. A checksum or hash alone proves integrity but not authorship, symmetric encryption relies on a shared secret so either party could have created the ciphertext, and a time stamp merely records when the message was handled without linking it to a unique signer or protecting the content.
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